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<title>Writing</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Writing</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Writings" and "Write" redirect here. For the section of the Hebrew Bible, see <a href="Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a>. For other uses, see <a href="Write_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Write (disambiguation)">Write (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

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<p><b>Writing</b> is the act of creating a persistent representation of <a href="Language" title="Language">language</a>. A <a href="Writing_system" title="Writing system">writing system</a> includes a particular set of symbols called a <i>script</i>, as well as the rules by which they encode a particular spoken language. Every <a href="Written_language" title="Written language">written language</a> arises from a corresponding spoken language; while the use of language is universal across human societies, most spoken languages are not written.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris2000185_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris2000185-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Writing is a <a href="Cognitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive">cognitive</a> and <a href="Social" title="Social">social</a> activity involving <a href="Neuropsychological" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuropsychological">neuropsychological</a> and <a href="Writing_process" title="Writing process">physical processes</a>. The outcome of this activity, also called <i>writing</i> (or a <i><a href="Text_(literary_theory)" title="Text (literary theory)">text</a></i>) is a series of <a href="Handwriting" title="Handwriting">physically inscribed</a>, <a href="Printing_press" title="Printing press">mechanically transferred</a>, or <a href="Digital_data" title="Digital data">digitally represented</a> symbols. <a href="Reading" title="Reading">Reading</a> is the corresponding process of interpreting a written text, with the interpreter referred to as a <i>reader</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2005[httpsarchiveorgdetailsinstitutionaleth0000smitpage105_105–108]_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2005[httpsarchiveorgdetailsinstitutionaleth0000smitpage105_105–108]-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In general, writing systems do not constitute languages in and of themselves, but rather a means of encoding language such that it can be read by others across time and space.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOng1982_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOng1982-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaas1996_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaas1996-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While not all languages use a writing system, those that do can complement and extend the capacities of <a href="Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken language</a> by creating durable forms of language that can be transmitted across space (e.g. <a href="Letter_(message)" title="Letter (message)">written correspondence</a>) and stored over time (e.g. <a href="Libraries" class="mw-redirect" title="Libraries">libraries</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmandt-BesseratErard200721_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmandt-BesseratErard200721-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Writing can also impact what knowledge people acquire, since it allows humans to externalize their thinking in forms that are easier to reflect on, elaborate on, reconsider, and revise.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmig1994_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmig1994-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdler-KassnerWardle2015_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdler-KassnerWardle2015-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinsor1994227–250_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinsor1994227–250-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tools,_materials,_and_motivations_to_write">Tools, materials, and motivations to write</h2></div>

<p>Any instance of writing involves a complex interaction among available tools, intentions, cultural customs, cognitive routines, genres, tacit and explicit knowledge, and the constraints and limitations of the systems used.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJakobsPerrin2014a8_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJakobsPerrin2014a8-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Writing_implement" title="Writing implement">Writing implements</a> used to make physical inscriptions include <a href="Finger" title="Finger">fingers</a>, <a href="Stylus" title="Stylus">styluses</a>, <a href="Ink_brush" title="Ink brush">ink brushes</a>, <a href="Pencil" title="Pencil">pencils</a>, <a href="Pen" title="Pen">pens</a>, and many styles of <a href="Lithography" title="Lithography">lithography</a>; <a href="Writing_surface" class="mw-redirect" title="Writing surface">writing surfaces</a> on which inscriptions may be made include <a href="Stone_tablet" class="mw-redirect" title="Stone tablet">stone tablets</a>, <a href="Clay_tablet" title="Clay tablet">clay tablets</a>, <a href="Bamboo_slips" class="mw-redirect" title="Bamboo slips">bamboo slips</a>, <a href="Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a>, <a href="Wax_tablet" title="Wax tablet">wax tablets</a>, <a href="Vellum" title="Vellum">vellum</a>, <a href="Parchment" title="Parchment">parchment</a>, <a href="Paper" title="Paper">paper</a>, <a href="Intaglio_printing" class="mw-redirect" title="Intaglio printing">copperplate</a>, and <a href="Blackboard" title="Blackboard">slate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahlowDale2014209–210Condorelli202239–49_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahlowDale2014209–210Condorelli202239–49-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The <a href="Typewriter" title="Typewriter">typewriter</a>, as well as the digital <a href="Word_processor" title="Word processor">word processor</a>, allow individual writers to produce visually consistent text mechanically via a <a href="Input_method" title="Input method">keyboard</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindgrenSullivan2019_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindgrenSullivan2019-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Advancements in <a href="Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">natural language processing</a> and <a href="Natural_language_generation" title="Natural language generation">natural language generation</a> have resulted in software capable of producing certain forms of formulaic writing (e.g. weather forecasts and sports reporting) without the direct involvement of humans<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReiterDale2000_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReiterDale2000-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> after initial configuration or, more commonly, to be used to support writing processes such as generating initial drafts, producing feedback with the help of a rubric, copy-editing, and <a href="Machine_translation" title="Machine translation">helping translation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKatsnelson2022208–209_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKatsnelson2022208–209-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Motivations_and_purposes">Motivations and purposes</h3></div>

<p>Historically, writing emerged to address the needs of societies growing in economic and social complexity. Once developed, potential applications included tracking produce and other wealth, recording <a href="History" title="History">history</a>, maintaining <a href="Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>, codifying knowledge through <a href="Curricula" class="mw-redirect" title="Curricula">curricula</a> as well as lists of texts deemed to contain foundational knowledge (e.g. <i><a href="The_Canon_of_Medicine" title="The Canon of Medicine">The Canon of Medicine</a></i>) or artistic value (e.g. the <a href="Literary_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary canon">literary canon</a>). Aids to administration included <a href="Legal_codes" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal codes">legal codes</a>, <a href="Census" title="Census">census</a> records, <a href="Contract" title="Contract">contracts</a>, <a href="Deed" title="Deed">deeds</a> of ownership, <a href="Tax" title="Tax">taxation</a>, <a href="Trade_agreement" title="Trade agreement">trade agreements</a>, and <a href="Treaties" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaties">treaties</a>. As <a href="Charles_Bazerman" title="Charles Bazerman">Charles Bazerman</a> explains, the "marking of signs on stones, clay, paper, and now digital memories—each more portable and rapidly traveling than the previous—provided means for increasingly coordinated and extended action as well as memory across larger groups of people over time and space."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBazerman2013193_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBazerman2013193-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further innovations included more uniform, predictable, and widely dispersed legal systems, the distribution of accessible versions of <a href="Sacred_texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred texts">sacred texts</a>, and furthering practices of <a href="Scientific_inquiry" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific inquiry">scientific inquiry</a> and <a href="Knowledge_management" title="Knowledge management">knowledge management</a>, all of which were largely reliant on portable and easily reproducible forms of inscribed language. The <a href="History_of_writing" title="History of writing">history of writing</a> is co-extensive with uses of writing and the elaboration of <a href="Soft_systems_methodology#Human_activity_system" title="Soft systems methodology">activity systems</a> that give rise to and circulate writing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersen2007214–231_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersen2007214–231-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Individual motivations for writing include the ability to operate beyond the limitations of one's own <a href="Memory" title="Memory">memory</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHutchins1995_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHutchins1995-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (e.g. <a href="To-do_lists" class="mw-redirect" title="To-do lists">to-do lists</a>, <a href="Recipe" title="Recipe">recipes</a>, reminders, <a href="Logbook" title="Logbook">logbooks</a>, <a href="Map" title="Map">maps</a>, directions for complicated tasks or <a href="Ritual" title="Ritual">rituals</a>), dissemination of ideas and coordination (e.g. <a href="Essay" title="Essay">essays</a>, <a href="Monograph" title="Monograph">monographs</a>, <a href="Broadside_(printing)" title="Broadside (printing)">broadsides</a>, <a href="Plan" title="Plan">plans</a>, <a href="Petition" title="Petition">petitions</a>, <a href="Manifesto" title="Manifesto">manifestos</a>), creativity and <a href="Storytelling" title="Storytelling">storytelling</a>, maintaining <a href="Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a> and other social networks,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristiansen2017135–164_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristiansen2017135–164-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Business_correspondence" title="Business correspondence">business correspondence</a> regarding goods and services, and <a href="Life_writing" title="Life writing">life writing</a> (e.g. a <a href="Diary" title="Diary">diary</a> or journal).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindenmanDriscollEfthymiouPavesich202470–106_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindenmanDriscollEfthymiouPavesich202470–106-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The global spread of digital <a href="Communication" title="Communication">communication</a> systems such as <a href="Email" title="Email">email</a> and <a href="Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a> has made writing an increasingly important feature of daily life, where these systems mix with older technologies like paper, pencils, whiteboards, printers, and copiers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESterponiZucchermaglioAlbyFatigante2017359–386_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESterponiZucchermaglioAlbyFatigante2017359–386-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Substantial amounts of everyday writing characterize most workplaces in <a href="Developed_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developed countries">developed countries</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandt20153_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandt20153-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many occupations (e.g. law, <a href="Accounting" title="Accounting">accounting</a>, <a href="Software_design" title="Software design">software design</a>, <a href="Human_resources" title="Human resources">human resources</a>), written documentation is not only the main deliverable but also the mode of work itself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJakobsSpinuzzi2014360_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJakobsSpinuzzi2014360-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even in occupations not typically associated with writing, routine <a href="Records_management" title="Records management">records management</a> has most employees writing at least some of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeaufort2007221–237_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeaufort2007221–237-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_uses">Contemporary uses</h2></div>

<p>Some professions are typically associated with writing, such as literary authors, journalists, and technical writers, but writing is pervasive in most modern forms of work, civic participation, household management, and leisure activities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001160_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001160-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Business_and_finance">Business and finance</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Professional_writing" title="Professional writing">Professional writing</a> and <a href="Professional_communication" title="Professional communication">Professional communication</a></div>

<p>Writing permeates everyday commerce. For example, in the course of an afternoon, a wholesaler might receive a written inquiry about the availability of a product line, then communicate with suppliers and fabricators through work orders and purchase agreements, correspond via email to affirm shipping availability with a <a href="Drayage" title="Drayage">drayage</a> company, write an invoice, and request proof of receipt in the form of a written signature. At a larger scale, modern systems of finances, banking, and business rest on written documents – including regulations, policies, and procedures; the creation of reports and other monitoring documents to make, evaluate, and provide accountability for decisions and operations; the creation and maintenance of records; internal written communications within departments to coordinate work; written communications that comprise work products presented to other departments and to clients; and external communications to clients and the public.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYates1989_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYates1989-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmart2006_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmart2006-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Business and financial organizations also rely on many written legal documents, such as contracts, reports to government agencies, tax records, and accounting reports.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDevitt1991336–357_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDevitt1991336–357-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Financial institutions and markets that hold, transmit, trade, insure, or regulate holdings for clients or other institutions are particularly dependent on written records (though now often in digital form) to maintain the integrity of their roles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYates2005_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYates2005-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Governance_and_law">Governance and law</h3></div>

<p>Many modern systems of government are organized and sanctified through written <a href="Constitution" title="Constitution">constitutions</a> at the national and sometimes state or other organizational levels. Written rules and procedures typically guide the operations of the various branches, departments, and other bodies of government, which regularly produce reports and other documents as work products and to account for their actions. In addition to <a href="Legislature" title="Legislature">legislatures</a> that draft and pass laws, these laws are administered by an <a href="Executive_branch" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive branch">executive branch</a>, which can present further written regulations specifying the laws and how they are carried out.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKerwinFurlong2019_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKerwinFurlong2019-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Governments at different levels also typically maintain written records on citizens concerning identities, life events such as births, deaths, marriages, and divorces, the granting of licenses for controlled activities, criminal charges, traffic offences, and other penalties small and large, and tax liability and payments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBazermanRogers2007192–193_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBazermanRogers2007192–193-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science_and_scholarship">Science and scholarship</h3></div>

<p>Research undertaken in <a href="Academic_discipline" title="Academic discipline">academic disciplines</a> is typically published as articles in journals or within book-length <a href="Monograph" title="Monograph">monographs</a>. Arguments, experiments, observational data, and other evidence collated in the course of research is represented in writing, and serves as the basis for later work. Data collection and drafting of <a href="Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscripts</a> may be supported by grants, which usually require proposals establishing the value of such work and the need for funding.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETardy20037–36_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETardy20037–36-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The data and procedures are also typically collected in <a href="Lab_notebook" title="Lab notebook">lab notebooks</a> or other preliminary files.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELatourWoolgar1986_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELatourWoolgar1986-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Preprint" title="Preprint">Preprints</a> of potential publications may also be presented at academic or disciplinary conferences or on publicly accessible web servers to gain peer feedback and build interest in the work. Prior to official publication, these documents are typically read and evaluated by <a href="Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a> from appropriate experts, who determine whether the work is of sufficient value and quality to be published.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHyland20041–19_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHyland20041–19-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Publication does not establish the claims or findings of work as being authoritatively true, only that they are worth the attention of other specialists. As the work appears in review articles, handbooks, textbooks, or other aggregations, and others cite it in the advancement of their own research, does it become codified as contingently reliable knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBazerman1988_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBazerman1988-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Journalism">Journalism</h3></div>

<p>News and news reporting are central to citizen engagement and knowledge of many spheres of activity people may be interested in about the state of their community, including the actions and integrity of their governments and government officials, economic trends, natural disasters and responses to them, international geopolitical events, including conflicts, but also sports, entertainment, books, and other leisure activities. While news and newspapers have grown rapidly from the eighteenth to the twentieth centuries, the changing economics and ability to produce and distribute news have brought about radical and rapid challenges to journalism and the consequent organization of citizen knowledge and engagement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConboy2007201–216_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConboy2007201–216-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerrin2013_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerrin2013-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These changes have also created challenges for <a href="Journalism_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Journalism ethics">journalism ethics</a> that have been developed over the past century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPavlik200182_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPavlik200182-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education_and_educational_institutions">Education and educational institutions</h3></div>

<p>Formal education is the social context most strongly associated with the learning of writing, and students may carry these particular associations long after leaving school.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWingate2012145–154_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWingate2012145–154-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alongside the writing that students read (in the forms of textbooks, assigned books, and other instructional materials as well as self-selected books) students do much writing within schools at all levels, on subject exams, in essays, in taking notes, in doing homework, and in <a href="Writing_assessment" title="Writing assessment">formative and summative assessments</a>. Some of this is explicitly directed toward the learning of writing, but much is focused more on subject learning.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKleinArconBaker2016245–246_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKleinArconBaker2016245–246-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliamsBeam2019227–242_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliamsBeam2019227–242-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writing_systems">Writing systems</h2></div>

<p><a href="Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing systems</a> may be broadly classified according to what units of language are generally represented by its symbols:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers200513–15_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers200513–15-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<ul><li><i>Phonographies</i> represent sounds of speech – with <a href="Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabets</a> and <a href="Syllabaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllabaries">syllabaries</a> using symbols for <a href="Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> and <a href="Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a> respectively.</li>

<li><i><a href="Logographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Logographies">Logographies</a></i> represent a language's units of meaning (<a href="Word" title="Word">words</a> or <a href="Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a>), though still associated by readers with their given pronunciations in the corresponding spoken language.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Logographies">Logographies</h3></div>

<p>A logography is written using <a href="Logogram" title="Logogram">logograms</a> – written characters which represent individual <a href="Word" title="Word">words</a> or <a href="Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many logograms have internal structures, with components potentially representing both phonographic and <a href="Ideographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideographic">ideographic</a> (e.g. <a href="Chinese_character_radicals" title="Chinese character radicals">Chinese character radicals</a>, <a href="Hieroglyphic_determinatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyphic determinatives">hieroglyphic determinatives</a>) aspects of the morpheme.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202261–62_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202261–62-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The main logographic system in use is <a href="Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a>, used primarily to write the <a href="Chinese_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese languages">Chinese languages</a> and <a href="Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>, and historically others from regions influenced by <a href="Chinese_culture" title="Chinese culture">Chinese culture</a>, such as <a href="Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a> and <a href="Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a>. Other logographic systems include <a href="Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> and <a href="Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya script</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan200911Goody198718_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan200911Goody198718-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syllabaries">Syllabaries</h3></div>

<p>A <a href="Syllabary" title="Syllabary">syllabary</a> is a set of written symbols that represent <a href="Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> typically a consonant followed by a vowel, or just a vowel alone. In some scripts more complex syllables (e.g. consonant–vowel–consonant or consonant–consonant–vowel) may have dedicated glyphs. Phonetically similar syllables are not written similarly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Syllabaries are best suited to languages with a relatively simple syllable structure, such as Japanese. Other syllabic scripts include <a href="Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a> and the <a href="Cherokee_syllabary" title="Cherokee syllabary">Cherokee syllabary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECushman2011255–281_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECushman2011255–281-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alphabets">Alphabets</h3></div>

<p>An <a href="Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabet</a> is a set of written symbols that represent <a href="Consonant" title="Consonant">consonants</a> and <a href="Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656_40-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Abjads">Abjads</h4></div>

<p>Alphabets that generally only have letters for consonants are called <i><a href="Abjad" title="Abjad">abjads</a></i> or <i>consonantaries</i>; though optional, abjads may also use diacritical marks to specify which vowels follow each consonant. The earliest alphabets were abjads, influenced by symbols representing specific consonants that originated in Egyptian hieroglyphs. Most abjads are likewise native to the Middle East, reflecting the relatively limited variation of vowels in the <a href="Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> of the <a href="Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a> spoken in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656_40-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Abugidas">Abugidas</h4></div>

<p>In most of the alphabets of India and <a href="Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, vowels are indicated through diacritics or modification of the shape of the consonant. These are called <i><a href="Abugida" title="Abugida">abugidas</a></i> or <i>alphasyllabaries</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656_40-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>abugida</i> is derived from the names of the initial letters in the <a href="Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Geʽez script</a>, another prominent abugida used to write several languages in Ethiopia and Eritrea.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECruttenden2021222,_224_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECruttenden2021222,_224-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_origins">History and origins</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a></div>

<p>Writing first emerged in the <a href="Early_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Bronze Age">Early Bronze Age</a> to meet the growing economic needs of the city-states of <a href="Sumeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Sumeria">Sumeria</a>, located in southern <a href="Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>. During this time, the complexity of trade and administration outgrew the power of memory, with <a href="Sumerian_cuneiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Sumerian cuneiform">Sumerian cuneiform</a> serving as a reliable means for recording transactions, maintaining financial accounts, and keeping historical records, among similar activities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson201936_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson201936-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Cuneiform, used to write the <a href="Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian language</a>, was followed relatively quickly by <a href="Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a>, with both emerging from proto-writing systems between 3400 and 3100 BC, with the earliest coherent texts from <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2600 BC</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202221_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202221-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus script</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2600</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2000 BC</span>), found on different types of artefacts produced by the <a href="Indus_Valley_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley Civilization">Indus Valley Civilization</a> on the <a href="Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, remains undeciphered, and whether it functioned as true writing is not agreed upon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202220Sproat2010110Gnanadesikan2009120_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202220Sproat2010110Gnanadesikan2009120-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While its origins are not visually obvious, the opportunity for Mesopotamian cultural diffusion to have introduced the concept of writing to the Indus peoples is clear.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson200920–21_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson200920–21-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</h3></div>

<p>In the 1970s, archaeologist <a href="Denise_Schmandt-Besserat" title="Denise Schmandt-Besserat">Denise Schmandt-Besserat</a> presented a theory establishing a link between cuneiform and previously uncategorized clay "tokens", the oldest of which have been found in the Zagros region of Iran. Around 8000 BC, Mesopotamians began using clay tokens to count their agricultural and manufactured goods. Later they began placing these tokens inside large, hollow clay containers (bulla, or globular envelopes) which were then sealed. The quantity of tokens in each container came to be expressed by impressing, on the container's surface, one picture for each instance of the token inside. They next dispensed with the tokens, relying solely on symbols for the tokens, drawn on clay surfaces. To avoid making a picture for each instance of the same object (for example: 100 pictures of a hat to represent 100 hats), they counted the objects by using various small marks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodsEmberlingTeeter201015_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodsEmberlingTeeter201015-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Cuneiform (from Latin <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">cunius</i></span>, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">wedge</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) emerged <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3200 BC</span> in the context of this technology for keeping accounts. By the end of the 4th millennium BC,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKramer1981381–383_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKramer1981381–383-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Mesopotamians were using a triangular-shaped stylus pressed into soft clay to record numbers. This system was gradually augmented with using a sharp stylus to indicate what was being counted by means of <a href="Pictographs" class="mw-redirect" title="Pictographs">pictographs</a>. Round and sharp styluses were gradually replaced with wedge-shaped styluses, at first only recording <a href="Logogram" title="Logogram">logograms</a> – with phonetic elements introduced by the 29th century BC to represent syllables in Sumerian, resulting in a general purpose writing system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan202337_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan202337-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmandt-Besserat199255–71_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmandt-Besserat199255–71-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>From the 26th century BC, cuneiform was adapted to write the East Semitic <a href="Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian language</a> (<a href="Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Assyrian</a> and <a href="Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a>) which had spread across southern Mesopotamia – and then to others such as <a href="Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Elamite">Elamite</a>, <a href="Hattian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hattian language">Hattian</a>, <a href="Hurrian_language" title="Hurrian language">Hurrian</a> and <a href="Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a>. Scripts similar in appearance to this writing system include those for <a href="Ugaritic" title="Ugaritic">Ugaritic</a> and <a href="Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a>. With the adoption of <a href="Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> as the lingua franca of the <a href="Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> (911–609 BC), Old Aramaic was also adapted to Mesopotamian cuneiform. The latest cuneiform texts in Akkadian discovered thus far date from the 1st century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeller1997_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeller1997-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Egypt">Egypt</h3></div>

<p>The earliest known <a href="Hieroglyphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyphs">hieroglyphs</a> (from Greek, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">sacred writing</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) are clay labels for the <a href="Predynastic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Predynastic Egypt">Predynastic</a> ruler "Scorpion I", dated <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> the 33nd century BC</span> and recovered at <a href="Abydos%2C_Egypt" title="Abydos, Egypt">Abydos</a> (modern Umm el-Qa'ab) – or otherwise the <a href="Narmer_Palette" title="Narmer Palette">Narmer Palette</a>, dated <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3100 BC</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMattessich2002_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMattessich2002-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hieroglyphic script was <a href="Logographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Logographic">logographic</a>, with phonetic adjuncts that included an effective <a href="Egyptian_hieroglyph" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian hieroglyph">alphabet</a>. The oldest deciphered sentence is attested on a seal impression from the tomb of <a href="Seth-Peribsen" title="Seth-Peribsen">Seth-Peribsen</a> at Abydos, dating to the <a href="Second_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Dynasty">Second Dynasty</a> (28th or 27th century BC). Around 800 hieroglyphs were used during the Old, Middle, and New Kingdom periods (2686–1077 BC); by the Greco-Roman period (30 BC – 642 AD), more than 5,000 distinct glyphs are attested.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199512_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199512-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Writing was important in maintaining the Egyptian empire, and literacy in the difficult system of hieroglyphs was concentrated among an educated elite of <a href="Scribe" title="Scribe">scribes</a> serving temple, pharaonic, and military authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipson20049Powell2009124_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipson20049Powell2009124-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</h3></div>

<p>Of several <a href="Pre-Columbian" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Columbian">pre-Columbian</a> scripts in <a href="Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a>, the one that appears to have been best developed, and the only one to be deciphered, is the <a href="Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya script</a>. The earliest inscription identified as Maya dates to the 3rd century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaturnoStuartBeltrán20061281–1283_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaturnoStuartBeltrán20061281–1283-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maya writing used around 800 distinct symbols – mainly logograms, complemented by a set of syllabograms used for affixes, disambiguation between different readings of a logogram, or the substitution of certain logograms entirely.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrigger200451_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrigger200451-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone script</a> and <a href="Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Chinese bronze inscriptions</a></div>

<p>The earliest surviving examples of writing in China – inscriptions on <a href="Oracle_bone" title="Oracle bone">oracle bones</a>, usually tortoise <a href="Plastron" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastron">plastrons</a> and ox <a href="Scapula" title="Scapula">scapulae</a> which were used for divination – date from <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200 BC</span>, during the <a href="Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late Shang</a> period. A small number of bronze inscriptions from the same period have also survived.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz199974–123_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz199974–123-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elamite_scripts">Elamite scripts</h3></div>

<p>The <a href="Proto-Elamite_script" title="Proto-Elamite script">Proto-Elamite script</a>, in use <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3200</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2900 BC</span>, is attested on clay tablets found at different sites across modern-day Iran, with the majority having been excavated at <a href="Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a>, an ancient city located east of the <a href="Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDahl2018383–396_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDahl2018383–396-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The script is thought to have been partly <a href="Logographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Logographic">logographic</a>, to have developed from early cuneiform, and to have used more than 1,000 signs – though its inscriptions "have been, and will remain, highly problematic in a discussion of writing because they represent a very unclear period of literacy".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEnglund2004104_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnglund2004104-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The <a href="Elamite_cuneiform" title="Elamite cuneiform">Elamite cuneiform</a> script, used <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2500</span> – 331 BC, was adapted from cuneiform as was used to write Akkadian. At any given point during this period, Elamite cuneiform used around 130 symbols – with a total of 206 used across its entire lifespan, far fewer than in most other cuneiform scripts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656_40-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aegean_systems">Aegean systems</h3></div>

<p>Prior to the invention of the Greek alphabet during the Iron Age, <a href="Cretan_hieroglyphs" title="Cretan hieroglyphs">Cretan hieroglyphs</a> are attested on artefacts from <a href="Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a> during the early-to-mid 2nd millennium BC. <a href="Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a>, the writing system of the <a href="Mycenaean_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycenaean Greeks">Mycenaean Greeks</a>, was used in <a href="Knossos" title="Knossos">Knossos</a> on Crete as well as the <a href="Greek_mainland" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek mainland">Greek mainland</a> <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1450−1200 BC</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivier1986377–389_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivier1986377–389-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Linear_A" title="Linear A">Linear A</a>, yet to be deciphered, was used in the <a href="Aegean_Islands" title="Aegean Islands">Aegean Islands</a> and the mainland <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1800–1450 BC</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalgarella2023396_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalgarella2023396-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development_of_the_alphabet">Development of the alphabet</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="History_of_the_alphabet" title="History of the alphabet">History of the alphabet</a></div>

<p>The alphabet is only known to have been invented once in human history, by a community of Canaanite turquoise miners in the <a href="Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a> <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1800 BC</span> to write <a href="West_Semitic_languages" title="West Semitic languages">West Semitic languages</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldwasser2010_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldwasser2010-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "in the context of cultural exchanges between Semitic-speaking people from the Levant and communities in Egypt".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrucker2022188_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrucker2022188-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This earliest attested form is known as the <i><a href="Proto-Sinaitic_script" title="Proto-Sinaitic script">Proto-Sinaitic script</a></i>, and it adapted concepts and at least some of its written letterforms from Egyptian hieroglyphic writing; it adopted wholly West Semitic sound values for its letters, as opposed to adapting existing Egyptian ones.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrucker2022187–189Fischer200184–85_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrucker2022187–189Fischer200184–85-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Precise dating of its origin, as well as the graphical origins of many letterforms (if any) remain unclear, and the script remains undeciphered.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer200185Haring202053–54_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer200185Haring202053–54-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 30 crude inscriptions have been found at a mountainous Egyptian mining site known as Serabit el-Khadem, with symbols that stood for single consonant sounds rather than whole words or concepts – the basis of an alphabetic system. It was not until between the 12th and 9th centuries BC that use of the alphabet became widespread.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldwasser2010_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldwasser2010-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The <a href="Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician alphabet</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1050 BC</span>) is a direct descendant of Proto-Sinaitic. Proto-Sinaitic and Phoenician were <a href="Abjad" title="Abjad">abjads</a> which only had letters representing consonantal sounds; Phoenician was ultimately adapted into the <a href="Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 800 BC</span>), the first to represent vowel sounds, which it did by re-purposing unused Phoenician consonantal signs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer200184–86_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer200184–86-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="Cumae_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Cumae alphabet">Cumae alphabet</a>, a variant of the early Greek alphabet, gave rise to the <a href="Etruscan_alphabet" title="Etruscan alphabet">Etruscan alphabet</a> and its own descendants, such as the <a href="Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer2001137–144_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer2001137–144-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other descendants from the Greek alphabet include <a href="Cyrillic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyrillic">Cyrillic</a>, used to write languages such as <a href="Bulgarian_language" title="Bulgarian language">Bulgarian</a> and <a href="Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrigger200458_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrigger200458-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Phoenician alphabet was also adapted into the <a href="Aramaic_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic script">Aramaic script</a>, from which the West Asian <a href="Hebrew_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew script">Square Hebrew</a>, <a href="Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002114_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002114-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and South Asian <a href="Brahmic" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmic">Brahmic</a> scripts are descended.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniels201881–88Fischer2001106Trigger200460Gnanadesikan2009173_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniels201881–88Fischer2001106Trigger200460Gnanadesikan2009173-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_texts">Religious texts</h3></div>

<p>In the history of writing, <a href="Religious_texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious texts">religious texts</a> or writing have played a special role. For example, some religious text compilations have been some of the earliest popular texts, or even the only written texts in some languages, and in some cases are still highly popular around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin1994_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin1994-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnston2007133_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnston2007133-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell200912_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell200912-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

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<ul><li><a href="Collaborative_writing" title="Collaborative writing">Collaborative writing</a></li>

<li><a href="Graphonomics" title="Graphonomics">Graphonomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Writer's_block" title="Writer's block">Writer's block</a></li>

<li><a href="Writing_circle" title="Writing circle">Writing circle</a></li>

<li><a href="Writing_slate" class="mw-redirect" title="Writing slate">Writing slate</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

</p>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeaufort2007221–237-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeaufort2007221–237_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeaufort2007">Beaufort (2007)</a>, pp. 221–237.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001160-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001160_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith2001">Smith (2001)</a>, p. 160.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDevitt1991336–357-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDevitt1991336–357_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDevitt1991">Devitt (1991)</a>, pp. 336–357.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKerwinFurlong2019-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKerwinFurlong2019_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKerwinFurlong2019">Kerwin & Furlong (2019)</a>.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBazermanRogers2007192–193-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBazermanRogers2007192–193_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBazermanRogers2007">Bazerman & Rogers (2007)</a>, pp. 192–193.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656_40-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656_40-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656_40-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656_40-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright199656_40-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDanielsBright1996">Daniels & Bright (1996)</a>, p. 56.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202261–62-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202261–62_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCondorelli2022">Condorelli (2022)</a>, pp. 61–62.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECushman2011255–281-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECushman2011255–281_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCushman2011">Cushman (2011)</a>, pp. 255–281.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECruttenden2021222,_224-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECruttenden2021222,_224_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCruttenden2021">Cruttenden (2021)</a>, pp. 222, 224.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson201936-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson201936_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobinson2019">Robinson (2019)</a>, p. 36.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202221-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202221_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCondorelli2022">Condorelli (2022)</a>, p. 21.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202220Sproat2010110Gnanadesikan2009120-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202220Sproat2010110Gnanadesikan2009120_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCondorelli2022">Condorelli (2022)</a>, p. 20; <a href="#CITEREFSproat2010">Sproat (2010)</a>, p. 110; <a href="#CITEREFGnanadesikan2009">Gnanadesikan (2009)</a>, p. 120.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson200920–21-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson200920–21_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobinson2009">Robinson (2009)</a>, pp. 20–21.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodsEmberlingTeeter201015-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodsEmberlingTeeter201015_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWoodsEmberlingTeeter2010">Woods, Emberling & Teeter (2010)</a>, p. 15.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKramer1981381–383-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKramer1981381–383_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKramer1981">Kramer (1981)</a>, pp. 381–383.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan202337-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan202337_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGnanadesikan2023">Gnanadesikan (2023)</a>, p. 37.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmandt-Besserat199255–71-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmandt-Besserat199255–71_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchmandt-Besserat1992">Schmandt-Besserat (1992)</a>, pp. 55–71.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeller1997-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeller1997_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeller1997">Geller (1997)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMattessich2002-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMattessich2002_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMattessich2002">Mattessich (2002)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199512-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoprieno199512_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1995">Loprieno (1995)</a>, p. 12.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipson20049Powell2009124-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipson20049Powell2009124_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLipson2004">Lipson (2004)</a>, p. 9; <a href="#CITEREFPowell2009">Powell (2009)</a>, p. 124.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESaturnoStuartBeltrán20061281–1283-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaturnoStuartBeltrán20061281–1283_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSaturnoStuartBeltrán2006">Saturno, Stuart & Beltrán (2006)</a>, pp. 1281–1283.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrigger200451-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrigger200451_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTrigger2004">Trigger (2004)</a>, p. 51.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz199974–123-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz199974–123_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoltz1999">Boltz (1999)</a>, pp. 74–123.</span>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnglund2004104-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEnglund2004104_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEnglund2004">Englund (2004)</a>, p. 104.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivier1986377–389-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivier1986377–389_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOlivier1986">Olivier (1986)</a>, pp. 377–389.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalgarella2023396-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalgarella2023396_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalgarella2023">Salgarella (2023)</a>, p. 396.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldwasser2010-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldwasser2010_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldwasser2010_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldwasser2010">Goldwasser (2010)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrucker2022188-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrucker2022188_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDrucker2022">Drucker (2022)</a>, p. 188.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrucker2022187–189Fischer200184–85-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrucker2022187–189Fischer200184–85_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDrucker2022">Drucker (2022)</a>, pp. 187–189; <a href="#CITEREFFischer2001">Fischer (2001)</a>, pp. 84–85.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer200185Haring202053–54-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer200185Haring202053–54_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFischer2001">Fischer (2001)</a>, p. 85; <a href="#CITEREFHaring2020">Haring (2020)</a>, pp. 53–54.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer200184–86-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer200184–86_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFischer2001">Fischer (2001)</a>, pp. 84–86.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer2001137–144-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer2001137–144_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFischer2001">Fischer (2001)</a>, pp. 137–144.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrigger200458-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrigger200458_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTrigger2004">Trigger (2004)</a>, p. 58.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002114-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002114_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoulmas2002">Coulmas (2002)</a>, p. 114.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniels201881–88Fischer2001106Trigger200460Gnanadesikan2009173-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniels201881–88Fischer2001106Trigger200460Gnanadesikan2009173_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaniels2018">Daniels (2018)</a>, pp. 81–88; <a href="#CITEREFFischer2001">Fischer (2001)</a>, p. 106; <a href="#CITEREFTrigger2004">Trigger (2004)</a>, p. 60; <a href="#CITEREFGnanadesikan2009">Gnanadesikan (2009)</a>, p. 173.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin1994-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin1994_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMartin1994">Martin (1994)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnston2007133-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnston2007133_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnston2007">Johnston (2007)</a>, p. 133.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell200912-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell200912_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPowell2009">Powell (2009)</a>, p. 12.</span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3></div>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFFinegan2019" class="citation book cs1">Finegan, Jack (2019). <i>Archaeological History Of The Ancient Middle East</i>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-429-72638-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGeller1997" class="citation journal cs1">Geller, Markham Judah (1997). "The Last Wedge". <i>Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie</i>. <b>87</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">43–</span>95. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fzava.1997.87.1.43">10.1515/zava.1997.87.1.43</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161968187">161968187</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGnanadesikan2009" class="citation book cs1">Gnanadesikan, Amalia E. (2009). <i>The Writing Revolution: Cuneiform to the Internet</i>. The Language Library. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4051-5406-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGoldwasser2010" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Orly_Goldwasser" title="Orly Goldwasser">Goldwasser, Orly</a> (March–April 2010). "How the Alphabet Was Born from Hieroglyphs". <i>Biblical Archaeology Review</i>. <b>36</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">38–</span>50.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGoody1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Jack_Goody" title="Jack Goody">Goody, Jack</a> (1987). <i>The Interface Between the Written and the Oral</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-521-33268-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGreen1981" class="citation journal cs1">Green, M. W. (1981). "The Construction and Implementation of the Cuneiform Writing System". <i>Visible Language</i>. <b>15</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">345–</span>372. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-2224">0022-2224</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHaas1996" class="citation book cs1">Haas, Christina (1996). <i>Writing technology: Studies on the Materiality of Literacy</i>. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8058-1306-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHarris2000" class="citation book cs1">Harris, Roy (2000). <i>Rethinking Writing</i>. Indiana University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-253-33776-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHouston2004" class="citation book cs1">Houston, Stephen D. (2004). <i>The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process</i>. <a href="Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-83861-0</bdi>.</cite>

<ul><li><span id="CITEREFEnglund2004" class="citation">Englund, Robert K. "The state of decipherment of proto-Elamite". In <a href="#CITEREFHouston2004">Houston (2004)</a>, pp. 119–168.</span></li>

<li><span id="CITEREFTrigger2004" class="citation">Trigger, Bruce G. "Writing systems: a case study in cultural evolution". In <a href="#CITEREFHouston2004">Houston (2004)</a>, pp. 39–68.</span></li></ul></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHutchins1995" class="citation book cs1">Hutchins, Edwin (1995). <i>Cognition in the Wild</i>. MIT Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-262-58146-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHyland2004" class="citation book cs1">Hyland, Ken (2004). <i>Disciplinary Discourses: Social Interactions in Academic Writing</i>. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-472-03024-8</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFJakobsPerrin2014" class="citation book cs1">Jakobs, Eva-Maria; Perrin, Daniel (2014). <i>Handbook of Writing and Text Production</i>. De Gruyter Mouton. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-11-022063-6</bdi>.</cite>

<ul><li><span id="CITEREFJakobsPerrin2014a" class="citation">Jakobs, Eva-Maria; Perrin, Daniel. "Introduction and research roadmap: writing and text production". In <a href="#CITEREFJakobsPerrin2014">Jakobs & Perrin (2014)</a>, pp. 1–25.</span></li>

<li><span id="CITEREFJakobsSpinuzzi2014" class="citation">Jakobs, Eva-Maria; Spinuzzi, Daniel. "Professional domains: writing as creation of economic value". In <a href="#CITEREFJakobsPerrin2014">Jakobs & Perrin (2014)</a>, pp. 359–383.</span></li>

<li><span id="CITEREFMahlowDale2014" class="citation">Mahlow, Cerstin; Dale, Robert. "Production media: writing as using tools in media convergent environments". In <a href="#CITEREFJakobsPerrin2014">Jakobs & Perrin (2014)</a>, pp. 209–230.</span></li></ul></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFJohnston2007" class="citation book cs1">Johnston, Sarah Iles (2007). <i>Ancient Religions</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-674-26477-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFKatsnelson2022" class="citation journal cs1">Katsnelson, Alla (29 August 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-022-02767-9">"Poor English skills? New AIs help researchers to write better"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>609</b> (7925): <span class="nowrap">208–</span>209. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022Natur.609..208K">2022Natur.609..208K</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-022-02767-9">10.1038/d41586-022-02767-9</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36038730">36038730</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:251931306">251931306</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKerwinFurlong2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Cornelius_M._Kerwin" title="Cornelius M. Kerwin">Kerwin, Cornelius M.</a>; Furlong, Scott R. (2019). <i>Rulemaking: How Government Agencies Write Law and Make Policy</i> (5th ed.). Sage. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4833-5281-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKleinArconBaker2016" class="citation book cs1">Klein, Perry D.; Arcon, Nina; Baker, Samanta (2016). "Writing to Learn". <i>Handbook of Writing Research</i> (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford. pp. <span class="nowrap">245–</span>246. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4625-2243-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKramer1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Samuel_Noah_Kramer" title="Samuel Noah Kramer">Kramer, Samuel Noah</a> (1981). "The Origin and Development of the Cuneiform System of Writing". <i>History Begins at Sumer: Thirty-Nine Firsts in Recorded History</i> (3rd ed.). University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8122-7812-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLatourWoolgar1986" class="citation book cs1">Latour, Bruno; Woolgar, Steve (1986). <i>Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-691-02832-X</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLindenmanDriscollEfthymiouPavesich2024" class="citation journal cs1">Lindenman, H.; Driscoll, D. L.; Efthymiou, A.; Pavesich, M.; Reid, J. (2024). "A Taxonomy of Life Writing: Exploring the Functions of Meaningful Self-Sponsored Writing in Everyday Life". <i>Written Communication</i>. <b>41</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">70–</span>106. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F07410883231207106">10.1177/07410883231207106</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLindgrenSullivan2019" class="citation book cs1">Lindgren, E.; Sullivan, K., eds. (2019). <i>Observing Writing: Insights from Keystroke Logging and Handwriting</i>. Leiden: Brill. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-90-04-39251-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLoprieno1995" class="citation book cs1">Loprieno, Antonio (1995). <i>Ancient Egyptian</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-44384-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLipson2004" class="citation book cs1">Lipson, Carol S. (2004). "Ancient Egyptian Rhetoric: It All Comes Down to Maat". In Lipson, Carol S.; Binkley, Roberta A. (eds.). <i>Rhetoric before and beyond the Greeks</i>. State University of New York Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7914-6099-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMartin1994" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Henri-Jean (1994). <i>The History and Power of Writing</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-226-50836-8</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMattessich2002" class="citation journal cs1">Mattessich, Richard (2002). "The oldest writings, and inventory tags of Egypt". <i>Accounting Historians Journal</i>. <b>29</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">195–</span>208. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2308%2F0148-4184.29.1.195">10.2308/0148-4184.29.1.195</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40698264">40698264</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:160704269">160704269</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMukhopadhyay2019" class="citation journal cs1">Mukhopadhyay, Bahata Ansumali (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fs41599-019-0274-1">"Interrogating Indus inscriptions to unravel their mechanisms of meaning conveyance"</a>. <i>Palgrave</i>. <b>5</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>37. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fs41599-019-0274-1">10.1057/s41599-019-0274-1</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2055-1045">2055-1045</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFO'HaraTaylorNewmanSellen2002" class="citation journal cs1">O'Hara, Kenton P.; Taylor, Alex; Newman, William; Sellen, Abigail J. (2002). "Understanding the materiality of writing from multiple sources". <i>International Journal of Human-Computer Studies</i>. <b>56</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">269–</span>305. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fijhc.2001.0525">10.1006/ijhc.2001.0525</a>.</cite></li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFPavlik2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="John_V._Pavlik" title="John V. Pavlik">Pavlik, John V.</a> (2001). <i>Journalism and New Media</i>. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 82. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-231-11482-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPerrin2013" class="citation book cs1">Perrin, Daniel (2013). <i>The Linguistics of Newswriting</i>. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-90-272-05278</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPowell2009" class="citation book cs1">Powell, Barry B. (2009). <i>Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization</i>. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4051-6256-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRay1986" class="citation journal cs1">Ray, John D. (1986). "The Emergence of Writing in Egypt". <i>World Archaeology</i>. <b>17</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">307–</span>316. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1986.9979972">10.1080/00438243.1986.9979972</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0043-8243">0043-8243</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/124697">124697</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2009" class="citation book cs1">Robinson, Andrew (2009). <i>Writing and Script: A Very Short Introduction</i>. Very Short Introductions. Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-956778-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRogers2005" class="citation book cs1">Rogers, Henry (2005). <i>Writing Systems: A Linguistic Approach</i>. Blackwell. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-631-23463-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFReiterDale2000" class="citation book cs1">Reiter, Ehud; Dale, Robert (2000). <i>Building Natural Language Generation Systems</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-511-51985-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSaturnoStuartBeltrán2006" class="citation journal cs1">Saturno, William A.; Stuart, David; Beltrán, Boris (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1121745">"Early Maya Writing at San Bartolo, Guatemala"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>311</b> (5765): <span class="nowrap">1281–</span>1283. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Sci...311.1281S">2006Sci...311.1281S</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1121745">10.1126/science.1121745</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16400112">16400112</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46351994">46351994</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSchmandt-Besserat1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Denise_Schmandt-Besserat" title="Denise Schmandt-Besserat">Schmandt-Besserat, Denise</a> (1996) [1992]. <i>How Writing Came About</i>. University of Texas Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-292-77704-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSmart2006" class="citation book cs1">Smart, Graham (2006). <i>Writing the Economy</i>. Studies in Language and Community. London: Equinox. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-84553-066-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFSmith2005" class="citation book cs1">——— (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/institutionaleth0000smit/page/105"><i>Institutional Ethnography: A Sociology for People</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7591-0502-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSproat2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Richard_Sproat" title="Richard Sproat">Sproat, Richard</a> (2010). <i>Language, Technology, and Society</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-954938-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSterponiZucchermaglioAlbyFatigante2017" class="citation journal cs1">Sterponi, Laura; Zucchermaglio, Cristina; Alby, Francesca; Fatigante, Marilena (October 2017). "Endangered Literacies? Affordances of Paper-Based Literacy in Medical Practice and Its Persistence in the Transition to Digital Technology". <i>Written Communication</i>. <b>34</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">359–</span>386. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0741088317723304">10.1177/0741088317723304</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149050969">149050969</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFStiebingHelft2018" class="citation book cs1">Stiebing, William H. Jr.; Helft, Susan N. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C4U0DwAAQBAJ"><i>Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture</i></a> (3rd ed.). Routledge. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-134-88083-6</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTardy2003" class="citation journal cs1">Tardy, Christine M. (January 2003). "A Genre System View of the Funding of Academic Research". <i>Written Communication</i>. <b>20</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">7–</span>36. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0741088303253569">10.1177/0741088303253569</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5205721">5205721</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWells2015" class="citation book cs1">Wells, B. K. (2015). <i>The Archaeology and Epigraphy of Indus Writing</i>. Archaeopress. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-78491-046-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsBeam2019" class="citation journal cs1">Williams, C.; Beam, S. (2019). "Technology and writing: review of research". <i>Computers & Education</i>. <b>128</b>: <span class="nowrap">227–</span>242. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.compedu.2018.09.024">10.1016/j.compedu.2018.09.024</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53746020">53746020</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWingate2012" class="citation journal cs1">Wingate, Ursula (2012). "'Argument!' helping students understand what essay writing is about". <i>Journal of English for Academic Purposes</i>. <b>11</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">145–</span>154. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jeap.2011.11.001">10.1016/j.jeap.2011.11.001</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73669683">73669683</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWinsor1994" class="citation journal cs1">Winsor, Dorothy A. (1994). "Invention and Writing in Technical Work: Representing the Object". <i>Written Communication</i>. <b>11</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">227–</span>250. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0741088394011002003">10.1177/0741088394011002003</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145645219">145645219</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWoodsEmberlingTeeter2010" class="citation book cs1">Woods, Christopher; Emberling, Geoff; Teeter, Emily (2010). <i>Visible Language: Inventions of Writing in the Ancient Middle East and Beyond</i>. Oriental Institute Museum Publications. Oriental Institute, University of Chicago. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-885923-76-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFYates1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="JoAnne_Yates" title="JoAnne Yates">Yates, JoAnne</a> (1989). <i>Control through Communication: The Rise of System in American Management</i>. Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8018-3757-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFYates2005" class="citation book cs1">——— (2005). <i>Structuring the Information Age: Life Insurance and Technology in the Twentieth Century</i>. Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8018-8086-5</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFAnkerl2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Ankerl, Guy (2000). Pereboom, Dirk (ed.). <i>Global Communication without Universal Civilization</i>. INU societal research. Vol. 1: Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations – Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. INU Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">59–</span>66, 235. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-2-88155-004-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFChristinBacon2002" class="citation book cs1">Christin, Anne-Marie; Bacon, Josephine (2002). <i>A History of Writing: From Hieroglyph to Multimedia</i>. Flammarion. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-2-08-010887-6</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060424070220/http://www.museumofwriting.co.uk/">"UK Museum of Writing with information on writing history and implements"</a>. Museum of Writing. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.museumofwriting.co.uk/">the original</a> on 24 April 2006.</cite></li>

<li>On ERIC Digests: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">

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</style><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/writing.htm"><i>Writing Instruction: Current Practices in the Classroom</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304054304/http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/writing.htm">Archived</a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/development.htm"><i>Writing Development</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040415092322/http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/development.htm">Archived</a> 15 April 2004 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/views.htm"><i>Writing Instruction: Changing Views over the Years</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052125/http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/views.htm">Archived</a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul></div></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Writing" class="extiw external" title="q:Special:Search/Writing">Writing</a></b></i>.</div></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Writing" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Writing">Writing</a></span>.</div></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiversity has learning resources about <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Collaborative_play_writing" class="extiw external" title="v:Collaborative play writing">Collaborative play writing</a></b></i></div></div>

</div>

<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Fiction_technique" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:Fiction technique">Fiction technique</a></b></i></div></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/writing" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/writing">writing</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uca.edu.ar/esp/sec-ffilosofia/esp/docs-institutos/s-cehao/boletin/damqatum3_eng2007.pdf">Language, Writing and Alphabet: An Interview with Christophe Rico</a> <a href="Damqatum" title="Damqatum">Damqatum</a> 3 (2007)</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mediengeschichte.dnb.de/DBSMZBN/Web/EN/Navigation/SoundsSymbolsScript/sounds_symbols_script_doorpage.html">"Signs – Books – Networks", virtual exhibition of the German Museum of Books and Writing i.a. with a thematic module on sounds, symbols and script</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wac.colostate.edu/">Writing Across the Curriculum Clearinghouse</a> – open access books, journals, teaching resources on research and practice.</li></ul>

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</style><div id="Writing_and_writing_material84" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> and <a href="Writing_material" title="Writing material">writing material</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Enduring</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plant-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Amate" title="Amate">Amate</a>

<ul><li><i><a href="Trema_micrantha" class="mw-redirect" title="Trema micrantha">Trema micrantha</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Ficus_aurea" title="Ficus aurea">Ficus aurea</a></i></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Bamboo_and_wooden_slips" title="Bamboo and wooden slips">Bamboo and wooden slips</a></li>

<li><a href="Birch_bark_manuscript" title="Birch bark manuscript">Birch bark</a> (<a href="Birch_bark" title="Birch bark"><i>Betula</i></a>)</li>

<li><a href="Folding-book_manuscript" title="Folding-book manuscript">Folding-book manuscript</a>

<ul><li><i><a href="Streblus_asper" title="Streblus asper">Streblus asper</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Paper_mulberry" title="Paper mulberry">Broussonetia papyrifera</a></i></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ola_leaf" title="Ola leaf">Ola leaf</a> (<i><a href="Corypha_umbraculifera" title="Corypha umbraculifera">Corypha umbraculifera</a></i>)</li>

<li><a href="Palm-leaf_manuscript" title="Palm-leaf manuscript">Palm leaf</a> (<i><a href="Borassus" title="Borassus">Borassus</a></i>)</li>

<li><a href="Paper" title="Paper">Paper</a></li>

<li><a href="Papyrus" title="Papyrus">Papyrus</a> (<i><a href="Cyperus_papyrus" title="Cyperus papyrus">Cyperus papyrus</a></i>)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Animal skin

<ul><li><a href="Parchment" title="Parchment">Parchment</a></li>

<li><a href="Vellum" title="Vellum">Vellum</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Metals

<ul><li><a href="Intaglio_(printmaking)" title="Intaglio (printmaking)">Intaglio</a></li>

<li><a href="Stamping_(metalworking)" title="Stamping (metalworking)">Stamping</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Oracle_bone" title="Oracle bone">Oracle bone</a></li>

<li><a href="Photographic_film" title="Photographic film">Photographic film</a></li>

<li><a href="Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">Stone</a>

<ul><li><a href="Geoglyph" title="Geoglyph">Geoglyph</a></li>

<li><a href="Petroglyph" title="Petroglyph">Petroglyph</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Tablets

<ul><li><a href="Clay_tablet" title="Clay tablet">Clay tablet</a></li>

<li><a href="Slate_(writing)" title="Slate (writing)">Slate</a></li>

<li><a href="Wax_tablet" title="Wax tablet">Wax tablet</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Textile_printing" title="Textile printing">Textile printing</a>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Impermanent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Electronic_paper" title="Electronic paper">Electronic paper</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_visual_display" title="Electronic visual display">Screen</a></li>

<li><a href="Skywriting" title="Skywriting">Skywriting</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Carrier objects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Codex" title="Codex">Codex</a></li>

<li><a href="Notebook" title="Notebook">Notebook</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_media" title="Electronic media">Electronic media</a></li>

<li><a href="Hu_(ritual_baton)" title="Hu (ritual baton)"><i>Hu</i>/<i>Shaku</i> (baton)</a></li>

<li><a href="Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">Inscription</a>

<ul><li><a href="Relief" title="Relief">Bas-relief</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Manuscript" title="Manuscript">Manuscript</a>

<ul><li><a href="Palimpsest" title="Palimpsest">Palimpsest</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Microform" title="Microform">Microform</a></li>

<li><a href="Scroll" title="Scroll">Scroll</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing systems</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">List of writing systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Written_language" title="Written language">Written language</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Paper_data_storage_media43" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Paper_data_storage_media43" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Paper_data_storage" title="Paper data storage">Paper data storage</a> media</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li> on <a href="Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> (c. 3000 BCE)</li>

<li><a href="Paper" title="Paper">Paper</a> (105 CE)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Index_card" title="Index card">Index card</a> (1640s)</li>

<li><a href="Punched_tape" title="Punched tape">Punched tape</a> (mid-1800s)</li>

<li><a href="Punched_card" title="Punched card">Punched card</a> (1880s)</li>

<li><a href="Edge-notched_card" title="Edge-notched card">Edge-notched card</a> (1904)</li>

<li><a href="Optical_mark_recognition" title="Optical mark recognition">Optical mark recognition</a> (1930s)</li>

<li><a href="Barcode" title="Barcode">Barcode</a> (1948)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Communication_studies358" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Communication_studies358" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_communication_studies" title="History of communication studies">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_communication" title="Outline of communication">Outline</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Topics and<br> terminology</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biocommunication_(science)" title="Biocommunication (science)">Biocommunication</a></li>

<li><a href="Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li>

<li><a href="Communication" title="Communication">Communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Conversation" title="Conversation">Conversation</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Information" title="Information">Information</a></li>

<li><a href="Intercultural_communication" title="Intercultural communication">Intercultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Interpersonal_communication" title="Interpersonal communication">Interpersonal</a></li>

<li><a href="Intrapersonal_communication" title="Intrapersonal communication">Intrapersonal </a></li>

<li><a href="Journalism" title="Journalism">Journalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Literacy" title="Literacy">Literacy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Reading" title="Reading">Reading</a></li>

</ul></li>

<li><a href="Mass_media" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li>

<li><a href="Meaning_(philosophy)" title="Meaning (philosophy)">Meaning</a></li>

<li><a href="Means_of_communication" title="Means of communication">Media</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_ecology" title="Media ecology">Media ecology</a></li>

<li><a href="Meta-communication" title="Meta-communication">Meta-communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Models_of_communication" title="Models of communication">Models of communication</a></li>

<li><a href="New_media" title="New media">New media</a></li>

<li><a href="Nonverbal_communication" title="Nonverbal communication">Nonverbal communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Nonviolent_Communication" title="Nonviolent Communication">Nonviolent Communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_relations" title="Public relations">Public relations</a></li>

<li><a href="Speech" title="Speech">Speech</a></li>

<li><a href="Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a>

<li><a href="Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">Telecommunications</a></li>

<li><a href="Text_and_conversation_theory" title="Text and conversation theory">Text and conversation theory</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Closed-loop_communication" title="Closed-loop communication">Closed-loop</a></li>

<li><a href="Communication_design" title="Communication design">Communication design</a></li>

<li><a href="Communication_theory" title="Communication theory">Communication theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Communicology" title="Communicology">Communicology</a></li>

<li><a href="Crisis_communication" title="Crisis communication">Crisis</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Climate</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross-cultural_communication" title="Cross-cultural communication">Cross-cultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Development_communication" title="Development communication">Developmental</a></li>

<li><a href="Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_communication" title="Environmental communication">Environmental</a></li>

<li><a href="Study_of_global_communication" title="Study of global communication">Global</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health</a></li>

<li><a href="International_communication" title="International communication">International</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Mediated_cross-border_communication" title="Mediated cross-border communication">Mediated cross-border</a></li>

<li><a href="Organizational_communication" title="Organizational communication">Organizational</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_communication" title="Political communication">Political</a></li>

<li><a href="Science_communication" title="Science communication">Science</a></li>

<li><a href="Technical_communication" title="Technical communication">Technical</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_communication" title="Visual communication">Visual</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li>

<li><a href="Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Barthes</a></li>

<li><a href="Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Bateson</a></li>

<li><a href="Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li>

<li><a href="Kenneth_Burke" title="Kenneth Burke">Burke</a></li>

<li><a href="Manuel_Castells" title="Manuel Castells">Castells</a></li>

<li><a href="Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_T._Craig" title="Robert T. Craig">Craig</a></li>

<li><a href="Jacques_Ellul" title="Jacques Ellul">Ellul</a></li>

<li><a href="Walter_Fisher_(professor)" title="Walter Fisher (professor)">Fisher</a></li>

<li><a href="Vil%C3%A9m_Flusser" title="Vilém Flusser">Flusser</a></li>

<li><a href="Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Gasset</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Gerbner" title="George Gerbner">Gerbner</a></li>

<li><a href="Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a></li>

<li><a href="J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li>

<li><a href="Max_Horkheimer" title="Max Horkheimer">Horkheimer</a></li>

<li><a href="Aldous_Huxley" title="Aldous Huxley">Huxley</a></li>

<li><a href="Harold_Innis" title="Harold Innis">Innis</a></li>

<li><a href="Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson">Jakobson</a></li>

<li><a href="Irving_Janis" title="Irving Janis">Janis</a></li>

<li><a href="Wendell_Johnson" title="Wendell Johnson">Johnson</a></li>

<li><a href="D._Lawrence_Kincaid" title="D. Lawrence Kincaid">Kincaid</a></li>

<li><a href="Walter_Lippmann" title="Walter Lippmann">Lippman</a></li>

<li><a href="Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li>

<li><a href="Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li>

<li><a href="Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">McLuhan</a></li>

<li><a href="Nick_Morgan" title="Nick Morgan">Morgan</a></li>

<li><a href="Vance_Packard" title="Vance Packard">Packard</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li>

<li><a href="Neil_Postman" title="Neil Postman">Postman</a></li>

<li><a href="Nora_C._Quebral" title="Nora C. Quebral">Quebral</a></li>

<li><a href="I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li>

<li><a href="Everett_Rogers" title="Everett Rogers">Rogers</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilbur_Schramm" title="Wilbur Schramm">Schramm</a></li>

<li><a href="Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Shannon</a></li>

<li><a href="James_W._Tankard_Jr." title="James W. Tankard Jr.">Tankard</a></li>

<li><a href="Deborah_Tannen" title="Deborah Tannen">Tannen</a></li>

<li><a href="Max_Wertheimer" title="Max Wertheimer">Wertheimer</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Literacy65" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Literacy65" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Literacy" title="Literacy">Literacy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Learning</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Adolescent_literacy" title="Adolescent literacy">Adolescent literacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Emergent_literacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergent literacy">Emergent literacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Family_literacy" title="Family literacy">Family literacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Functional_illiteracy" title="Functional illiteracy">Functional illiteracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Phonics" title="Phonics">Phonics</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-literacy" title="Post-literacy">Post-literacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Whole_language" title="Whole language">Whole language</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_countries_by_literacy_rate" title="List of countries by literacy rate">List of countries by literacy rate</a></li>

<li><a href="Literacy_in_Canada" title="Literacy in Canada">Canada</a></li>

<li><a href="Literacy_in_India" title="Literacy in India">India</a>

<ul><li><a href="Literacy_in_Bihar" title="Literacy in Bihar">Bihar</a></li></ul></li>

<li>New Zealand

<ul><li><a href="Literacy_in_Tokelau" title="Literacy in Tokelau">Tokelau</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Literacy_in_Romania" title="Literacy in Romania">Romania</a></li>

<li><a href="Literacy_in_the_United_States" title="Literacy in the United States">United States</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="International_Literacy_Association" title="International Literacy Association">International Literacy Association</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Literacy_Day" title="International Literacy Day">International Literacy Day</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Council_of_Teachers_of_English" title="National Council of Teachers of English">National Council of Teachers of English</a></li>

<li><a href="No_Child_Left_Behind_Act" title="No Child Left Behind Act">No Child Left Behind Act</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Marie_Clay" title="Marie Clay">Marie Clay</a></li>

<li><a href="Ruth_Johnson_Colvin" title="Ruth Johnson Colvin">Ruth Johnson Colvin</a></li>

<li><a href="Paulo_Freire" title="Paulo Freire">Paulo Freire</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Paul_Gee" title="James Paul Gee">James Paul Gee</a></li>

<li><a href="Griffith_Jones_(priest)" title="Griffith Jones (priest)">Griffith Jones</a></li>

<li><a href="Frank_Laubach" title="Frank Laubach">Frank Laubach</a></li>

<li><a href="Brian_Street" title="Brian Street">Brian Street</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Agricultural_literacy" title="Agricultural literacy">Agricultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Braille_literacy" title="Braille literacy">Braille</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_literacy" title="Carbon literacy">Carbon</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_literacy" title="Computational literacy">Computational</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_literacy" title="Computer literacy">Computer</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_literacy" title="Critical literacy">Critical</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_literacy" title="Cultural literacy">Cultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_literacy" title="Digital literacy">Digital</a></li>

<li><a href="Diaspora_literacy" title="Diaspora literacy">Diaspora</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_literacy" title="Ecological literacy">Ecological</a></li>

<li><a href="Electracy" title="Electracy">Electracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotional_literacy" title="Emotional literacy">Emotional</a></li>

<li><a href="Faith_literacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Faith literacy">Faith</a></li>

<li><a href="Financial_literacy" title="Financial literacy">Financial</a></li>

<li><a href="Geo-literacy" title="Geo-literacy">Geo-literacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Graph_literacy" title="Graph literacy">Graph</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_literacy" title="Health literacy">Health</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mental_health_literacy" title="Mental health literacy">Mental health</a></li>

<li><a href="Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Literacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupational Safety and Health Literacy">Occupational Safety and Health</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Information_literacy" title="Information literacy">Information</a></li>

<li>Information literacies</li>

<li><a href="Information_and_media_literacy" title="Information and media literacy">Information and media</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_literacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal literacy">Legal</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_literacy" title="Media literacy">Media</a></li>

<li><a href="Metaliteracy" title="Metaliteracy">Metaliteracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Multiliteracies" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiliteracies">Multiliteracies</a></li>

<li><a href="Musical_literacy" title="Musical literacy">Musical</a></li>

<li><a href="Numeracy" title="Numeracy">Numeracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Object_Literacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Object Literacy">Object</a></li>

<li><a href="Oracy" title="Oracy">Oracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_literacy" title="Political literacy">Political</a></li>

<li><a href="Power_literacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Power literacy">Power</a></li>

<li><a href="Physical_literacy" title="Physical literacy">Physical</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychological_literacy" title="Psychological literacy">Psychological</a></li>

<li><a href="Racial_literacy" title="Racial literacy">Racial</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_literacy" title="Religious literacy">Religious</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_literacy" title="Scientific literacy">Scientific</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_literacy" title="Social literacy">Social</a></li>

<li><a href="Statistical_literacy" title="Statistical literacy">Statistical</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_literacy" title="Technological literacy">Technological</a></li>

<li><a href="Transliteracy" title="Transliteracy">Transliteracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_literacy" title="Visual literacy">Visual</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aliteracy" title="Aliteracy">Aliteracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Asemic_writing" title="Asemic writing">Asemic writing</a></li>

<li><a href="Children's_literature" title="Children's literature">Children's literature</a></li>

<li><a href="Composition_studies" title="Composition studies">Composition studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Dyslexia" title="Dyslexia">Dyslexia</a></li>

<li><a href="Literacy_test" title="Literacy test">Literacy test</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_consumption" title="Media consumption">Media consumption</a></li>

<li><a href="Orality" title="Orality">Orality</a></li>

<li><a href="Oral_literature" title="Oral literature">Oral literature</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-literate_society" title="Post-literate society">Post-literate society</a></li>

<li><a href="Reading" title="Reading">Reading</a></li>

<li><a href="Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37260#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2464" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37260#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2464" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.worldcat.org/fast/1181638">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Schreiben"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4116418-0">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Writing"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85148637">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Écriture"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11936326f">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Écriture"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11936326f">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="psaní"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph115938&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Escritura"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX524426">Spain</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000052212&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Writing"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007529633305171">Israel</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10641060">NARA</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/1aa7ad14-436c-4688-885b-f229a4a9ec27">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-31" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Writing&oldid=1303495890">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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